A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws.Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. At the Battle of Auerstadt in 1806, the forces of King Frederick William III of Prussia outnumbered the French by 63,000 to 27,000; however, when he was told, mistakenly, that Napoleon was in command, he ordered a hasty retreat that turned into a rout. With the Allied center demolished, the French swept through both enemy flanks and sent the Allies fleeing chaotically, capturing thousands of prisoners in the process. [35], After two months of planning, Bonaparte decided that France's naval power was not yet strong enough to confront the British Royal Navy. [citation needed], The impact of the Napoleonic invasion of Spain and ousting of the Spanish Bourbon monarchy in favour of his brother Joseph had an enormous impact on the Spanish empire. After some minor engagements that culminated in the Battle of Ulm, Mack finally surrendered after realizing that there was no way to break out of the French encirclement. [217] Arsenic was used as a poison during the era because it was undetectable when administered over a long period. For other uses, see, Significant civil and political events by year, Several family members held additional titles in. In 1800, it took him only a month to achieve the same goal. [48] On 15 September, Bonaparte was removed from the list of generals in regular service for his refusal to serve in the Vendée campaign. [2][108], The peace with Britain proved to be uneasy and controversial. "[202] Modern scientists have speculated that his later illness may have arisen from arsenic poisoning caused by copper arsenite in the wallpaper at Longwood House. [248], In terms of influence on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. [325] The memory of Napoleon in Poland is favourable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies. Napoleon surrendered to Captain Frederick Maitland on HMS Bellerophon on 15 July 1815. In the first few months on Elba he created a small navy and army, developed the iron mines, oversaw the construction of new roads, issued decrees on modern agricultural methods, and overhauled the island's legal and educational system. [240] In-depth academic studies about his early life conclude that up until age 2, he had a "gentle disposition". [138] Despite their overwhelming defeat, the Prussians refused to negotiate with the French until the Russians had an opportunity to enter the fight. [98] Under the terms of Amiens, Napoleon agreed to appease British demands by not abolishing slavery in any colonies where the 1794 decree had never been implemented. The two sides reached an agreement, the Erfurt Convention, that called upon Britain to cease its war against France, that recognized the Russian conquest of Finland from Sweden and made it an autonomous Grand Duchy,[150] and that affirmed Russian support for France in a possible war against Austria "to the best of its ability". [184] The French were surrounded: British armies pressed from the south, and other Coalition forces positioned to attack from the German states. III, book 3.VII", https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0253.xml, "May 10th 1802, "The last cry of innocence and despair, "The British Expeditionary Force to Walcheren: 1809", "Why Napoleon Probably Should Have Just Stayed in Exile the First Time", "The Singular Case of Napoleon's Wallpaper", Inside Longwood – Barry O'Meara's clandestine letters, "Napoleon and the Pope: From the Concordat to the Excommunication", "This Day in Jewish History / The Sanhedrin of Paris Convenes at the Behest of Napoleon", "Most Popular Napoleon Bonaparte Movies and TV Shows", "Greatest cartooning coup of all time: The Brit who convinced everyone Napoleon was short", "The Myth of Napoleon's Height: How a Single Image Can Change History", "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered", "Outlines of the evolution of weights and measures and the metric system", "Les poids et mesures sous l'Ancien Régime", "Call for Papers: International Napoleonic Society, Fourth International Napoleonic Congress", "A New Napoleonic Campaign for Montereau". Plebiscite, a vote by the people of an entire country or district to decide on some issue, such as choice of a ruler or government, option for independence or annexation by another power, or a question of national policy. ‘Dionysius can cite a plebiscite of 492 protecting a tribune from interruption at a public meeting,’ More example sentences [154], After four years on the sidelines, Austria sought another war with France to avenge its recent defeats. The French showed themselves to be worthy of victory, but the Russians showed themselves worthy of being invincible". Melas stated that he had won the battle and retired to his headquarters around 3 pm, leaving his subordinates in charge of pursuing the French. His army walked through snow up to their knees, and nearly 10,000 men and horses froze to death on the night of 8/9 November alone. [199][200] The Times published articles insinuating the British government was trying to hasten his death. The campaign destroyed Russian cities, but did not yield the decisive victory Napoleon wanted. His role in the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery in France's overseas colonies are controversial and affect his reputation. 1, p. 7. Safe for commercial use. His political and cultural legacy has made him one of the most celebrated and controversial leaders in human history.[2][3]. Their hypothesis was that the calomel given to Napoleon became an overdose, which killed him and left extensive tissue damage behind. After clearing the last Spanish force guarding the capital at Somosierra, Napoleon entered Madrid on 4 December with 80,000 troops. He also authorized the French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark. Napoleon refused to manumit the Russian serfs because of concerns this might provoke a reaction in his army's rear. On that basis, the two emperors began peace negotiations at the town of Tilsit after meeting on an iconic raft on the River Niemen. A plebiscite was a national referendum, for which voters were not allowed to debate the issues involved. The Allied Powers having declared that Emperor Napoleon was the sole obstacle to the restoration of peace in Europe, Emperor Napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that he renounces, for himself and his heirs, the thrones of France and Italy, and that there is no personal sacrifice, even that of his life, which he is not ready to make in the interests of France.Done in the palace of Fontainebleau, 11 April 1814. Charles pressed the left wing of the French army and hurled his men towards the III Corps of Marshal Davout. It also imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on the defeated Habsburgs and allowed the fleeing Russian troops free passage through hostile territories and back to their home soil. Plebiscite is a negative term referring to an unfair and unfree vote in an undemocratic political system. Alexander told the Sénat that the Allies were fighting against Napoleon, not France, and they were prepared to offer honourable peace terms if Napoleon were removed from power. [171], In an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots, Napoleon termed the war the Second Polish War—the First Polish War had been the Bar Confederation uprising by Polish nobles against Russia in 1768. This helped the French practise their defensive tactic for the Battle of the Pyramids, fought on 21 July, about 24 km (15 mi) from the pyramids. [20] In his youth he was an outspoken Corsican nationalist and supported the state's independence from France. Joseph Farington, who observed Napoleon personally in 1802, commented that "Samuel Rogers stood a little way from me and ... seemed to be disappointed in the look of [Napoleon's] countenance [face] and said it was that of a little Italian." Word Origin mid 16th cent. The Inquisition ended as did the Holy Roman Empire. [121], A single corps properly situated in a strong defensive position could survive at least a day without support, giving the Grande Armée countless strategic and tactical options on every campaign. The victory boosted the morale of the French army. [100] The resulting Law of 20 May had the express purpose of reinstating slavery in Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe and French Guiana, and restored slavery throughout the French Empire and its Caribbean colonies for another half a century, while the French trans-Atlantic slave trade continued for another twenty years. [335] Louise was less than happy with the arrangement, at least at first, stating: "Just to see the man would be the worst form of torture". [73] In early 1799, he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and Galilee). Napoleon also significantly aided the United States when he agreed to sell the territory of Louisiana for 15 million dollars during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson. [261] A nursery rhyme warned children that Bonaparte ravenously ate naughty people; the "bogeyman". Napoleon was excommunicated by the Catholic Church, but later reconciled with the Church before his death in 1821. [citation needed], Before going to Iberia, Napoleon decided to address several lingering issues with the Russians. User: Which leader use plebiscite to make himself emperor?a. [15], The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child. [101][102][103][104][105], Napoleon sent an expedition under his brother-in-law General Leclerc to reassert control over Saint-Domingue. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered a relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and controlling different forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals. The next day, the Sénat passed the Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur ("Emperor's Demise Act"), which declared Napoleon deposed. It was customary to cast a death mask of a leader. [272] The Code influences a quarter of the world's jurisdictions such as that of in Continental Europe, the Americas and Africa. [234] The Pope was not released until 1814, when the Coalition invaded France. Lazar Volin (1970) A century of Russian agriculture. Alternative Titles: Charles-Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, Louis-Napoléon Napoleon III , also called (until 1852) Louis-Napoléon, in full Charles-Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte , (born April 20, 1808, Paris—died January 9, 1873, Chislehurst, Kent , England), nephew of Napoleon I , president of the Second Republic of France (1850–52), and then emperor of the French (1852–70). [277], Napoleon directly overthrew remnants of feudalism in much of western Continental Europe. As a part of the Concordat, Napoleon presented another set of laws called the Organic Articles. [49], On 3 October, royalists in Paris declared a rebellion against the National Convention. A brief attempt at resistance was made at Smolensk in August; the Russians were defeated in a series of battles, and Napoleon resumed his advance. The Republic, however, was bankrupt and the ineffective Directory was unpopular with the French population. 1800 februárban az államcsínyt Napoleon és köre népszavazással próbálta legitimálni, de a történészek bebizonyították, hogy választási csalás történt. In the Treaty of Fontainebleau, the Allies exiled Napoleon to Elba, an island of 12,000 inhabitants in the Mediterranean, 20 km (12 mi) off the Tuscan coast. His casket was opened to confirm that it still contained the former emperor. For example, in 1935, the Saar chose to remain part of Germany rather than become part of France. Although France maintained roughly 300,000 troops in Iberia during the Peninsular War, the vast majority were tied down to garrison duty and to intelligence operations. By the end of the fighting, the French had lost Aspern but still controlled Essling. The shocking French defeat at the Battle of Bailén in July gave hope to Napoleon's enemies and partly persuaded the French emperor to intervene in person. This was in contrast to the complex uniforms with many decorations of his marshals and those around him. The Bookman, Vol. 13 December: North German territories annexed to French Empire. His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists, with mathematicians, naturalists, chemists, and geodesists among them. He continued the policy, which emerged from the Revolution, of promotion based primarily on merit. [151], Napoleon then returned to France and prepared for war. The battle is often seen as a tactical masterpiece because of the near-perfect execution of a calibrated but dangerous plan—of the same stature as Cannae, the celebrated triumph by Hannibal some 2,000 years before. Moreau and the French swept through Bavaria and scored an overwhelming victory at Hohenlinden in December 1800. Murat married one of Napoleon's sisters, becoming his brother-in-law; he also served under Napoleon as one of his generals. [95], Whereas the plebiscite two years earlier had brought out 1.5 million people to the polls, the new referendum enticed 3.6 million to go and vote (72 percent of all eligible voters). British historian Andrew Roberts states: "The ideas that underpin our modern world—meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on—were championed, consolidated, codified and geographically extended by Napoleon. French children were issued a catechism that taught them to love and respect Napoleon.[230]. On 25 September, after great secrecy and feverish marching, 200,000 French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260 km (160 mi). The assault on the position led to the capture of the city, but during it Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh. [41], Some contemporaries alleged that Bonaparte was put under house arrest at Nice for his association with the Robespierres following their fall in the Thermidorian Reaction in July 1794, but Napoleon's secretary Bourrienne disputed the allegation in his memoirs. He left Paris three days later and settled at Josephine's former palace in Malmaison (on the western bank of the Seine about 17 kilometres (11 mi) west of Paris). charge that he was not troubled when faced with the prospect of war and death for thousands, turned his search for undisputed rule into a series of conflicts throughout Europe and ignored treaties and conventions alike. Martin van Creveld described him as "the most competent human being who ever lived". After the Battle of Berezina Napoleon managed to escape but had to abandon much of the remaining artillery and baggage train. His last words were, France, l'armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine ("France, the army, head of the army, Joséphine"). [311][312][313], Napoleon's use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his régime, and established his image for posterity. [208], Napoleon's personal physician, Barry O'Meara, warned London that his declining state of health was mainly caused by the harsh treatment. [96], A keen observer of Bonaparte's rise to absolute power, Madame de Rémusat, explains that "men worn out by the turmoil of the Revolution […] looked for the domination of an able ruler" and that "people believed quite sincerely that Bonaparte, whether as consul or emperor, would exert his authority and save [them] from the perils of anarchy. "[16] Napoleon's maternal grandmother had married into the Swiss Fesch family in her second marriage, and Napoleon's uncle, the cardinal Joseph Fesch, would fulfill a role as protector of the Bonaparte family for some years. …by the use of the plebiscite to ratify decisions already made. Scientific report. Hazareesingh, Sudhir. The first known record of him signing his name as Bonaparte was at the age of 27 (in 1796). People from different walks of life and areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 Revolution. When Napoleon heard that Prussian troops had orders to capture him dead or alive, he fled to Rochefort, considering an escape to the United States. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia. [123], Napoleon knew that the French fleet could not defeat the Royal Navy in a head-to-head battle, so he planned to lure it away from the English Channel through diversionary tactics. FACT CHECK: We strive for accuracy and fairness. [274], The movement toward national unification in Italy was similarly precipitated by Napoleonic rule. At least four genuine death masks of Napoleon are known to exist: one in, The body can tolerate large doses of arsenic if ingested regularly, and arsenic was a fashionable. 8 May: Plebiscite favourable to Napoleon III and to the liberal flavour that he gave to t… Désirée's sister Julie Clary had married Bonaparte's elder brother Joseph. France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. [124] The main strategic idea involved the French Navy escaping from the British blockades of Toulon and Brest and threatening to attack the West Indies. [210][211], Napoleon's original death mask was created around 6 May, although it is not clear which doctor created it. Similar arrangements were made with the Church in territories controlled by Napoleon, especially Italy and Germany. [115] Instead he placed the crown on Josephine's head, the event commemorated in the officially sanctioned painting by Jacques-Louis David. Il peut arriver qu'un référendum, tourne au plébiscite. Corrections? In the 21st century, at least 18 Napoleon ships are operated under the flag of Indonesia, Germany, Italy, Australia, Argentina, India, Netherlands, United Kingdom and France. n. 1. However, while he was successful in restoring slavery in the eastern Caribbean, Napoleon failed in his attempts to subdue Saint-Domingue, and the colony that France once proudly boasted of as the "Pearl of the Antilles" became independent as Haiti in 1804. [195], Napoleon arrived in Paris on 20 March and governed for a period now called the Hundred Days. [169], By 1812, advisers to Alexander suggested the possibility of an invasion of the French Empire and the recapture of Poland. Napoleon assumed command in Germany and inflicted a series of defeats on the Coalition culminating in the Battle of Dresden in August 1813. Napoleon swung his forces to the southeast and the Grande Armée performed an elaborate wheeling movement that outflanked the Austrian positions. 1870 January: Nearly 7000 miners went on strike at Creusot, demanding an increase in their pay. At the insistence of his court, especially his wife Queen Louise, Frederick William III decided to challenge the French domination of Central Europe by going to war. [64] He met Talleyrand, France's new Foreign Minister—who served in the same capacity for Emperor Napoleon—and they began to prepare for an invasion of Britain. The Austrians launched a series of offensives against the French to break the siege, but Napoleon defeated every relief effort, scoring victories at the battles of Castiglione, Bassano, Arcole, and Rivoli. He intended to use this invasion force to strike at England. [66] The Directory agreed in order to secure a trade route to India. [22] His older brother, Joseph, frequently received their mother's attention which made Napoleon more assertive and approval-driven. Hitler and Mussolini held plebiscites in which rejection of the dictator’s proposal was unthinkable. He was exiled to the island of Elba off the coast of Tuscany, and the Bourbon dynasty was restored to power. [229] Now, Napoleon could win favour with the Catholics while also controlling Rome in a political sense. [284] Wellington, when asked who was the greatest general of the day, answered: "In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon". [f] Studies published in 2007 and 2008 dismissed evidence of arsenic poisoning, and confirmed evidence of peptic ulcer and gastric cancer as the cause of death. This boy would make an excellent sailor". [89] The battle began favourably for the Austrians as their initial attack surprised the French and gradually drove them back. Ross, commander of the Northumberland. [166] Although fighting in Iberia continued, the War of the Fifth Coalition would be the last major conflict on the European continent for the next three years. [35] He fought the Battle of Shubra Khit against the Mamluks, Egypt's ruling military caste. Ces principes forment l’ossature de la constitutio… [42] Bonaparte dispatched an impassioned defence in a letter to the commissar Saliceti, and he was subsequently acquitted of any wrongdoing. The serfs later committed atrocities against French soldiers during France's retreat. [91], Although critics have blamed Napoleon for several tactical mistakes preceding the battle, they have also praised his audacity for selecting a risky campaign strategy, choosing to invade the Italian peninsula from the north when the vast majority of French invasions came from the west, near or along the coastline. a vote of the people; used by Napoleon to get a constitution approved that gave him all the real power to control ... Napoleon wanted to cut off Great Britain from the rest of Europe but they established a blockade of their own that was more effective than the French's. [318], Widespread rumours of Napoleon's return from St. Helena and Napoleon as an inspiration for patriotism, individual and collective liberties, and political mobilization manifested themselves in seditious materials, displaying the tricolor and rosettes. This left Barras and his Republican allies in control again but dependent on Bonaparte, who proceeded to peace negotiations with Austria. [161] Charles received the French with 150,000 of his own men. [citation needed], Following the Ulm Campaign, French forces managed to capture Vienna in November. [125], By August 1805, Napoleon had realized that the strategic situation had changed fundamentally. Historian David Chandler wrote of the Prussian forces: "Never has the morale of any army been more completely shattered". [247] "I am of the race that founds empires" he once boasted, deeming himself an heir to the Ancient Romans. Napoleon appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new King of Spain in the summer of 1808. When his back was to the wall in 1814 he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals. He was promoted to brigadier general at the age of 24. [245] He kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. [b][28] In early adulthood, he briefly intended to become a writer; he authored a history of Corsica and a romantic novella. The man I saw was of short stature, just over five feet tall, rather heavy although he was only 37 years old. He was raised as a Catholic but never developed much faith. [83] In the first few months of the consulate, with war in Europe still raging and internal instability still plaguing the country, Napoleon's grip on power remained very tenuous. [198], Napoleon was moved to Longwood House on Saint Helena in December 1815; it had fallen into disrepair, and the location was damp, windswept and unhealthy. Cardinal Fesch performed the wedding. Rather, people vote yes or no on a proposition. The very first thing Alexander said to Napoleon was probably well-calibrated: "I hate the English as much as you do". The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. Margaret Bradley, "Scientific education versus military training: the influence of Napoleon Bonaparte on the École Polytechnique". He also habitually wore (usually on Sundays) the blue uniform of a colonel of the Imperial Guard Foot Grenadiers (blue with white facings and red cuffs). It resulted in the collapse of the Grande Armée and inspired a renewed push against Napoleon by his enemies. However, during the Revolution, the National Convention voted to abolish slavery in February 1794. [221] As an adult, Napoleon was a deist, believing in an absent and distant God. Kill your Emperor, if you wish. [250] He also unnerved the enemy. "[258] Johann Ludwig Wurstemberger, who accompanied Napoleon from Camp Fornio in 1797 and on the Swiss campaign of 1798, noted that "Bonaparte was rather slight and emaciated-looking; his face, too, was very thin, with a dark complexion ... his black, unpowdered hair hung down evenly over both shoulders", but that, despite his slight and unkempt appearance, "His looks and expression were earnest and powerful. [209], In February 1821, Napoleon's health began to deteriorate rapidly, and he reconciled with the Catholic Church. [95] In a new plebiscite during the spring of 1802, the French public came out in huge numbers to approve a constitution that made the Consulate permanent, essentially elevating Napoleon to dictator for life. [10], Napoleon was born the same year the Republic of Genoa ceded Corsica to France. [334] Napoleon chose divorce so he could remarry in search of an heir. On 19 June, Tsar Alexander sent an envoy to seek an armistice with Napoleon. [115] For the official coronation, he raised the Charlemagne crown over his own head in a symbolic gesture, but never placed it on top because he was already wearing the golden wreath. Napoleon constantly rode out among the troops urging them to stand and fight. Napoleon participated actively in the sessions of the Council of State that revised the drafts. [244], Napoleon maintained strict, efficient work habits, prioritizing what needed to be done. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition which defeated him at the Battle of Waterloo in June. "[257], A personal friend of Napoleon's said that when he first met him in Brienne-le-Château as a young man, Napoleon was only notable "for the dark color of his complexion, for his piercing and scrutinising glance, and for the style of his conversation"; he also said that Napoleon was personally a serious and somber man: "his conversation bore the appearance of ill-humor, and he was certainly not very amiable. Napoleon often complained of the living conditions in letters to the governor and his custodian, Hudson Lowe,[201] while his attendants complained of "colds, catarrhs, damp floors and poor provisions. General Melas had a numerical advantage, fielding about 30,000 Austrian soldiers while Napoleon commanded 24,000 French troops. Emperor Francis wanted to wait and see how the British performed in their theatre before entering into negotiations with Napoleon. His basic objective was to destroy the isolated Austrian armies in Southern Germany before their Russian allies could arrive. They never invaded, but Napoleon's troops received careful and invaluable training for future military operations. Amiens called for the withdrawal of British troops from recently conquered colonial territories as well as for assurances to curtail the expansionary goals of the French Republic. There is something very fetching and very eager about him that is impossible to resist". [292] He gave special attention to the advanced centers, such as the École Polytechnique, that provided both military expertise and state-of-the-art research in science. Without any senior officers or marshals any prospective invasion of Paris would have been impossible. [25] He was, however, not an isolated case, as it was estimated in 1790 that fewer than 3 million people, out of France's population of 28 million, were able to speak standard French, and those who could write it were even fewer. [185] On 1 April, Alexander addressed the Sénat conservateur. After dissolving the Holy Roman Empire, he reduced the number of German states from about 300 to fewer than 50, prior to German Unification. [236], He stated, "I will never accept any proposals that will obligate the Jewish people to leave France, because to me the Jews are the same as any other citizen in our country. Their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone, and their work was published in the Description de l'Égypte in 1809. Owing to the Russian army's scorched earth tactics, the French found it increasingly difficult to forage food for themselves and their horses.

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